Monday, October 10, 2011

The Biblical Case for the Deity of Jesus Christ, Apart from Jesus of Nazareth’s Self-Understanding

Introduction

            The identity of Jesus of Nazareth has been debated since he walked on the earth. Even as Jesus was in the midst of his public ministry, the question of his identity was disputed among the people. The disciples informed him that some say he is “John the Baptist; and others, Elijah; but still others, Jeremiah, or one of the prophets” (Matt. 16:14 NASB). The chief priests and the Pharisees believed Jesus to be a deceiver (Matt. 27:63) and a blasphemer (Matt. 26:65). The disciples of Jesus, as expressed by Peter, declared him to be “the Christ, the Son of the living God” (Matt. 16:16). Jesus affirmed this belief by Peter and proclaimed, “Blessed are you, Simon Barjona, because flesh and blood did not reveal this to you, but my Father who is in heaven” (Matt. 16:17). The nature and identity of Jesus Christ has never ceased to be a debate among every generation that has lived since these words were uttered. Nevertheless, the self-understanding of Jesus is without question. His self-references, teaching, and behavior leave no room for doubt that Jesus believed himself to be God in flesh. I will limit my assessment specifically to the New Testament support apart from this self-understanding of Jesus, for many pages could be written on that topic alone; therefore, my focus will be on the Biblical case for the deity of Jesus Christ, as expressed by his followers. The first century witnesses documented in the New Testament canon testify to and provide excellent evidence for the deity of Jesus Christ. In this paper, testimony is to be understood as statements or proclamations made (whether implicit or explicit), which attest to the deity of Jesus. This testimony is found throughout the New Testament. Evidence relates to the significant deeds of Jesus, as recorded in the four Gospels, which bear witness to his deity. After evaluating the abounding testimony and evidence, the verdict will be indisputable.

The Testimony in the Four Gospels

The Synoptic Gospels
            In the opening chapter of the first Gospel, Matthew narrates the events of Jesus’ birth. As he does throughout his Gospel, Matthew recounts the details of this story as fulfilling various Old Testament prophecies proclaimed centuries earlier. Perhaps the most significant is recorded in verses 22-23, which states, “Now all this took place to fulfill what was spoken by the Lord through the prophet: ‘Behold, the virgin shall be with child and shall bear a son, and they shall call his name Immanuel,’ which translated means, ‘God with us’.” Matthew is quoting Isaiah 7:14 and his “primary doctrinal intent is, of course, Christological. Conceived of a virgin, Jesus is a messianic king but also the embodiment of divine presence among his people.”[1] The deity of Jesus is not a doctrine that develops over time, but it is proclaimed in prophecy and pondered at his birth.
            The Synoptic Gospel authors also claim the fulfillment of prophecy in the purpose of John the Baptist, who is the messenger to prepare and “make ready the way of the Lord” (Mark 1:3; see also Matt. 3:3 and Luke 3:4-6). This prophecy, recorded in Isaiah 40:3, goes on to proclaim, “Make smooth in the desert a highway for our God” (italics mine). So the prophecy from Isaiah, which all three Synoptic Gospel writers view to be messianic in nature, professes that the path to be “prepared” by this future messenger will be for God! There are other similar examples that could be shared from the Synoptic Gospels. “The New Testament teaching that Jesus is God, then, has significant precedent in Isaiah.”[2] Listed below is additional testimony declaring the deity of Jesus found in the Synoptic Gospels:
·      As mentioned above, Peter’s confession that Jesus is “the Christ, the Son of the Living God” (Matt. 16:16; Mark 8:29: Luke 9:20).

·      Mark opens his Gospel, “The beginning of the gospel of Jesus Christ, the Son of God”
(vs. 1).

·      The disciples worship Jesus and say, “You are certainly God’s Son” (Matt. 14:33)!

·      The disciples worship him (Matt. 28:17).[3]

·      The demons even proclaim Jesus to be the “Son of God” (Matt. 8:29) and the “Holy One of God” (Luke 4:34)!

The Gospel of John
            One of the most significant Christological passages in all of the New Testament is the prologue of John’s Gospel. He states, “In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God. He was in the beginning with God. All things came into being through Him, and apart from Him nothing came into being that has come into being” (1:1-3). We know this “Word” that John is acclaiming is Jesus of Nazareth, because in verse 14 he states, “And the Word became flesh, and dwelt among us…” John uses the term “Word” (Greek, Logos) to mark the identity of who Jesus is – the very subject and purpose of his Gospel message that follows.  William Temple has stated:
“The Logos, alike for Jew and Gentile, represents the ruling fact of the universe, and represents that fact as the self-expression of God. The Jew will remember that ‘by the Word of the Lord were the heavens made’; the Greek will think of the rational principle of which all natural laws are particular expressions. Both will agree that this Logos is the starting-point of all things.”[4]

            The opening words of John’s prologue are clearly meant to bring to mind the opening words of the Old Testament: “In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth” (Gen. 1:1, italics mine). So before John even gets through the first clause of his first sentence, he is explicitly establishing the deity of Jesus Christ by identify him with and in the Creator God who called everything into existence out of nothing. “These statements affirming the Word’s existence before creation and his involvement in bringing about the existence of all creation reveal him to be eternal and uncreated—two essential attributes of God.”[5]
The prologue of John ends with another unequivocal testimony of the deity of Christ:
·      “No one has ever seen God, but the one and only Son, who is himself God and is in closest relationship with the Father, has made him known” (John 1:18 NIV).

·      The Greek text states, “θεον ουδεις εωρακεν πωποτε μονογενης θεος ο ων εις τον κολπον του πατρος εκεινος εξηγησατο.”[6]

·      The Interlinear text records, “God no one has seen ever; an only one, God, the one being in the bosom of the Father, that one explained [Him].”[7]

A close reading of this concluding verse to John’s prelude reveals that the author of the fourth Gospel explicitly refers to Jesus of Nazareth as “God.” The first use of the term “God” (theon) is referring to the Father, as the phrase is clearly alluding to God’s statement to Moses, “You cannot see My face, for no man can see Me and live” (Ex. 33:20)! However, the second use of the term “God” (theos) is a reference to the Son (the focal point of the prologue), who is “the one being in the bosom of the Father,” and is, therefore, not the Father Himself. “The affirmation that the ‘only Son’ is himself ‘God’ is a fitting conclusion to the prologue to the Gospel of John. It makes it clear that the one who was before creation (1:1) was still God when he came to make God the Father known to us through the Incarnation.”[8]
            An additional noteworthy testimony to the deity of Christ is the words of the disciple Thomas. After seeing the resurrected Jesus, he unabashedly states, “My Lord and my God” (20:28)! “This is an incredible response: not only does Thomas now believe that Jesus has been raised, but he also identifies him with the God of heaven. And so does John. The combination of John 1:1 with 20:28 is a one-two punch that levels any doubt about early belief in the divinity of Jesus.”[9] John also asserts in 13:3 of his Gospel, “Jesus, knowing that the Father had given all things into His hands, and that He has come forth from God and was going back to God...” The use of “come” and “going” by John clearly implies the preexistence of Jesus, for he would be returning to the Father from where he had come. Finally, Jesus’ disciples even testify to his omniscience. John 16:30 states, “Now we know that You know all things…” Interestingly, in the following verse Jesus responds, “Do you now believe?” Peter also testifies, “Lord, You know all things” (21:17). This, of course, is telling because God alone holds the attribute of omniscience.

The Evidence in the Four Gospels

The Synoptic Gospels
            The evidence for the deity of Christ found within the Synoptic Gospels is abundant. As I pointed out in the testimony of the Gospel writers, Jesus of Nazareth fulfilled numerous messianic prophecies written centuries prior to his birth. In addition, perhaps the most overt manifestations of deity lie in the miracles of Jesus. All three Synoptic Gospel authors record a great storm on the sea that terrified the disciples, “but Jesus Himself was asleep. And they came to Him and woke Him, saying, ‘Save us, Lord; we are perishing!’ He said to them, ‘Why are you afraid, you men of little faith?’ Then He got up and rebuked the winds and the sea, and it became perfectly calm” (Matt. 8:24-26; see also Mark 4:35-41 and Luke 8:22-25). “The Gospels conclude this particular episode with the disciples’ question, ‘Who then is this?’ showing that the miracle points to Jesus’ unique (and, from a human point of view, hidden) identity.”[10] With this miraculous episode in mind, it is significant to find in the Psalms confessions to God which profess, “Who stills the roaring of the seas, the roaring of the waves” (Ps. 65:7), and “You rule the swelling of the sea; When its wave rise, You still them” (Ps. 89:9). Listed below are some additional examples of Jesus’ power over nature, which give evidence of his deity:
·      Jesus informs his disciples where to lower their nets, which results in a large catch of fish (Luke 5:1-11). He performs this miracle again in John’s Gospel (John 21:1-11).

·      Jesus commands unclean spirits who obey him (Mark 1:21-28; Luke 4:31-37).

·      He rebukes a fever, which immediately leaves the sick (Matt. 8:14-15; Mark 1:29-31; Luke 4:38-39).

·      In the city of Nain, Jesus brings a man back from the dead (Luke 7:11-17).

·      He heals a paralytic (Matt. 9:1-8; Mark 2:1-12; Luke 5:17-26).

·      Jesus heals a man with a withered hand (Matt. 12:9-13; Mark 3:1-6; Luke 6:6-11).

·      Jesus feeds the 5,000 (Matt. 14:13-21; Mark 6:31-34; Luke 9:10-17).

·      Jesus walks on the water (Matt. 14:22-33; Mark 6:45-52).

·      He heals a blind man (Mark 8:22-26).

·      Jesus cleanses ten lepers (Luke 17:11-19).

The additional examples provided above are merely a portion of the miracles Jesus performs during his public ministry. Their significance, as evidence for the deity of Jesus, is unmistakable. After all, it is the Old Testament Judaism God who heals all of Israel’s diseases. For example, in 2 Kings 5:7, the king of Israel receives a letter from the king of Aram concerning Naaman’s leprosy, and the king of Israel replies, “Am I God, to kill and to make alive, that this man is sending word to me to cure a man of his leprosy?” “Jesus in effect takes God’s place as the healer of Israel. No doctors or medicine are necessary for him—he heals as God heals.”[11]
            The most important and extraordinary piece of evidence concerning the deity of Jesus Christ is his resurrection from the dead. Matthew chapters 28, Mark chapter 16, and Luke chapter 24 all record that on the morning of the first day of the week following Jesus of Nazareth’s crucifixion and burial, the tomb was found empty by a group of women. The Synoptic Gospels go on to record several appearances by the risen Jesus to his women followers and disciples. In all of human history, there is no single more significant act than the resurrection of Jesus Christ. His followers understood this significance and would devote the rest of their lives to spreading his name and message on the earth. N.T. Wright notes:
“This was what made them a messianic group within Judaism. This was what made them take on Caesar’s world with the news that there was ‘another king’. This was what made them not only speak of the one true God, but invoke him, pray to him, love him and serve him in terms of the Father and the lord, of the God who sent the Son and now sends the Spirit of the Son, in terms of the only-begotten God who makes visible the otherwise invisible creator of the world. This is why, when they spoke of the resurrection of Jesus, they spoke of the resurrection of the Son of God.”[12]

The Gospel of John

            Abundant evidence has already been provided in the Synoptic Gospels for the deity of Christ. Jesus performed a multitude of miracles and fulfilled numerous Old Testament prophecies, culminating in his incomparable victory over death! The Gospel of John provides even additional evidence for his deity, particularly in his attributes that demonstrate his unity with God the Father. For example, Jesus reflected the omnipresence of God when he healed the royal official’s son from afar. For the young boy was close to death, and “The royal official says to Him, ‘Sir, come down before my child dies.’ Jesus said to him, ‘Go; your son lives.’ The man believed the word that Jesus spoke to him and started off. As he was going down, his slaves met him, saying that his son was living” (4:49-51). Jesus also reflects the attribute of omniscience in the episode involving the woman at the well in Samaria. After just beginning a conversation with her, “He said to her, ‘Go call your husband and come here.’ The woman answered and said, ‘I have no husband.’ Jesus said to her, ‘You have correctly said, ‘I have no husband’; for you have had five husbands, and the one whom you now have is not your husband; this you have said truly.’ The woman said to Him, ‘Sir, I perceive that You are a prophet’” (4:16-19). She clearly implies that Jesus is correct in his assessment. Listed below are further examples of Jesus’ omniscience:
·      Jesus knew that Lazarus had died before they received word he had passed (John 11:11-15).

·      Jesus knew that Judas Iscariot would betray him (John 6:70-71).

·      Jesus knew that Peter would deny him three times, and even warned him about it (John 13:36-38).

·      Jesus predicts his death and resurrection (John 2:19).

·      The Synoptic Gospels record Jesus’ prediction that the Romans were going to destroy the temple before that generation had passed away (Matt. 23:36-39; Mark 13:1-2, 30; Luke 21:20-24, 32). Within forty years, in the year A.D. 70, the Romans destroyed the temple.

·      Matthew also records Jesus foretelling that his disciples would preach the gospel and make disciples of all nations (Matt. 24:14; 28:19). “This is an audacious claim in the early first century, considering how parochial and insignificant Judaism (let alone Jesus’ small following) seemed at the time.”[13]

The Testimony in Acts and the Epistles
Acts of the Apostles
            The most prolific testimony in the book of Acts for the deity of Jesus is in the apostles’ use of “Lord” when speaking to him and about him. In an early gathering of the brethren, prior to Pentecost, Peter refers to the “Lord Jesus” (1:21), and then they prayed the first recorded prayer to Jesus, saying, “You, Lord, who know the hearts of all men” (vs. 24). In this one prayer alone, there are four implicit claims to the divinity of Jesus being expressed:
1.     As stated, the use of the term “Lord” when addressing Jesus is an acknowledgement of his deity. Bowman and Komoszewski note:

“Early in his ministry, Jesus warned that even those who said to him ‘Lord, Lord’ (kurie, kurie) and claimed to do miracles in his name were condemned if they disobeyed him (Matt. 7:21-22; Luke 6:46; see also Matt. 25:11). This doubled form of address occurs repeatedly in the Septuagint in place of the Hebrew ‘Lord YHWH’ (Deut. 3:24; 9:26; 1 Kings 8:53; Ps. 69:6; Ezek. 20:49; Amos 7:2, 5) or ‘YHWH Lord’ (Pss. 109:21; 140:7; 141:8), but never in reference to anyone but YHWH.”[14]

2.     The very fact that the disciples are praying to Jesus is an affirmation of the deity of Jesus. There are no other examples found in Scripture of a righteous Hebrew person praying to anyone but YHWH.

3.     In his prayer, Peter uses the expression, “You…who know the hearts of all men” (vs. 24). As noted from John’s Gospel, this is an acknowledgement of Jesus’ omniscience.

4.     The expression by Peter (from #3) recalls an Old Testament prayer to YHWH by king Solomon: “…forgive and act and rend to each according to all his ways, whose heart You know, for You alone know the hearts of all the sons of men” (1 Kings 8:9, italics mine).

The significance of the points mentioned thus far, indeed throughout this biblical case for the deity of Christ, cannot be understated. This is appropriately comprehended when one appreciates the thoroughly monotheistic context from which Christianity arises. Komoszewski et al note:
“Christianity not only arose in a Jewish monotheistic context; it also embraced the monotheistic convictions of Judaism. Indeed, Christianity shared Judaism’s intolerance for devotion to any so-called god but the supreme God. In light of this fact, it would be remarkable to find any hints in early Christian writings that Jesus was treated as divine. Yet the Gospels and the larger New Testament supply such hints—and more.”[15]

Listed below are additional examples found in the book of Acts testifying to the deity of Christ:
·      The Gospel message is referred to as “the word of the Lord” (Acts 8:25; 13:44, 48-49; 15:35-36; 16:32; 19:10). This expression is found repeatedly in the Old Testament in reference to the message that YHWH would supply to His prophets. For example, 2 Samuel 24:11 states, “When David arose in the morning, the word of the Lord came to the prophet Gad…” (italics mine; see also 1 Kings 13:1-2; 2 Chronicles 36:21; Isa. 1:10; Jer. 1:4; Ezek. 1:3; Hos. 1:1-2; Joel 1:1; etc.).

·      Stephen calls upon Jesus twice as “Lord” (Acts 7:59-60).

·      When Peter declares in Acts 2:21, “Everyone who calls on the name of the Lord (a clear reference to Jesus) will be saved” (italics mine), he is quoting a passage from Joel, which has “YHWH” (2:32).

·      In Acts 20:28, Paul states, “Be on guard…the Holy Spirit has made you overseers, to shepherd the church of God which He purchased with His own blood” (italics mine). This is an astounding claim by Paul that God offered Himself at the cross for the church.

The Pauline Epistles
            There are numerous statements made by Paul that testify to the deity of Jesus Christ. In his letter to the Colossians, Paul states, “For in Him all the fullness of Deity dwells in bodily form” (2:9). This “high” Christological statement makes plain the complex truth that God, indeed, walked as a man. “The additional words ‘of Deity’ [from 1:19] specify what dwells in Christ in its entire fullness…so that He is the essential and adequate image of God, which He could not be if He were not the possessor of the divine essence.”[16] One of the most important passages for understanding the identity and person of Christ is Philippians 2:6-11:
“[Christ] who, although He existed in the form of God, did not regard equality with God a thing to be grasped, but emptied Himself by becoming obedient to the point of death, even death on a cross. For this reason also, God highly exalted Him, and bestowed on Him the name which is above every name, so that at the name of Jesus every knee will bow, of those who are in heaven and on earth and under the earth, and every tongue will confess that Jesus Christ is Lord, to the glory of God the Father.”

Many truths concerning the deity of Jesus can be determined from the rich content of this passage:
·      Christ existed “in the form of God,” meaning that he existed in heaven before he became a man. This, of course, testifies to the preexistence of Jesus Christ.

·      Concerning the phrase, he “did not regard equality with God a thing to be grasped,” “Paul’s point is that although Christ was in God’s form and was (at least by right) God’s equal, he did not demand his divine rights but humbly took a servant’s form and became a human being.”[17]

·      The exaltation of Christ, so that “every knee will bow…and every tongue will confess,” exhibits the glory that is due Jesus – glory that is only fit for God.

Paul also proclaims the preexistence of Christ in his letter to the Romans. He states,
“For what the Law could not do, weak as it was through the flesh, God did: sending His own Son in the likeness of sinful flesh…” (8:3; see also Gal. 4:4-6). The implication is clear: The Son of God existed before becoming a human. In Romans 10:13, Paul quotes Joel 2:32, as Peter does in Acts, and applies “Lord” from that passage to Christ. Finally, in his letter to the Corinthians, Paul proclaims the sinless perfection of Jesus: “He made Him who knew no sin to be sin on our behalf…” (2 Cor. 5:21). There are many more implicit and explicit statements in the Pauline epistles, which testify to the deity of Jesus Christ.
Hebrews-Revelation
            Elements of the remaining epistles of the New Testament further compound the multitude of testimony and evidence already established, which declare the deity of Jesus Christ. Due to the enormity of proof already provided, I will only contribute a few more testimonies from the biblical text. To begin, in Peter’s second epistle, he states “To those who have received a faith of the same kind as ours, by the righteousness of our God and Savior, Jesus Christ” (1:1, italics mine). The implication and importance of this phrase is obvious. Peter has attributed to Jesus two titles: Savior and God. Peter’s testimony concerning the deity of Jesus is loud and clear in his epistle before he even gets to the body of his letter.
The author of Hebrews affirms the sinless perfection of Christ, as Paul did in his letter to the Corinthians. The author states that Jesus, “who has been tempted in all things as we are, yet without sin” (Heb. 4:15, italics mine). In addition to this, “Peter characterized Jesus as an ‘unblemished and spotless’ lamb (1 Pet. 1:19) ‘who committed no sin, nor was any deceit found in His mouth’ (1 Pet. 2:22).”[18] John also makes this assertion in his first epistle, “You know that He appeared in order to take away sins; and in Him there is no sin” (1 John 3:5, italics mine). Finally, concerning testimony in the book of Revelation, Bowman and Komoszewski claim:
“The worship offered to the Son is the same kind of worship offered to the Father. Revelation 4-5 presents three cycles of worship that culminate in chapter 5 with the worship of God and the Lamb together. First God is worshiped (4:9-11), then the Lamb (5:8-12), and finally God and the Lamb together (5:13-14). The noted commentator on Revelation, Henry Barclay Swete concluded, ‘This chapter is the most powerful statement on the divinity of Christ in the New Testament…’”[19]
Conclusion
            The evidence and the testimonies, presented in the New Testament, affirming the deity of Jesus Christ are compelling. The Gospels portray the Son of God as having absolute power over nature and evil spirits. He exhibits attributes that could only be manifested in God. These attributes include a reflection of the omnipresence of God. He also exemplifies omniscience and even omnipotence as he overcomes the grave in his triumphant resurrection from the dead. Jesus of Nazareth fulfilled numerous Old Testament prophecies and his closest followers frequently acknowledge the sinless perfection of their teacher. The evidence attested by the three-year public ministry of Jesus, and the testimony affirmed by his disciples and the authors of the New Testament canon provide the only verdict fathomable: Jesus Christ was God prior to the Incarnation, was God as he walked the earth, and is God now and for eternity.

















BIBLIOGRAPHY

Beale, G.K. and D.A. Carson, eds. Commentary on the New Testament Use of the Old
Testament. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2007.

Bowman Jr., Robert M. and J. Ed Komoszewski. Putting Jesus in His Place: The Case for the
Deity of Christ. Grand Rapids: Kregel Publications, 2007.

Craig, William Lane. Reasonable Faith. Third ed. Wheaton: Crossway Books, 2008.

Geisler, Norman and Frank Turek. I Don’t Have Enough Faith to Be an Atheist. Wheaton:
Crossway Books, 2004.

Komoszewski, Ed J., M. James Sawyer and Daniel B. Wallace. Reinventing Jesus: How
Contemporary Skeptics Miss the Real Jesus and Mislead Popular Culture. Grand Rapids:
Kregel Publications, 2006.

New American Standard Bible. Anaheim: Foundation Publications, 1995.

New International Version. Nashville: Holman Bible Publishers, 1998.

Novum Testamentum Grace. Barbara and Kurt Aland, eds. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft,
1993.

O’Brien, Peter T. Word Biblical Commentary: Colossians, Philemon. Nashville: Thomas Nelson
            Publishers, 1982.

The New Greek-English Interlinear New Testament. J.D. Douglas, ed. Wheaton: Tyndale House
            Publishers, Inc., 1990.

Wright, N.T. The Resurrection of the Son of God. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2003.


[1]G.K. Beale and D.A. Carson, eds., Commentary on the New Testament Use of the Old Testament (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2007), 5.
[2]Robert M. Bowman Jr. and J. Ed Komoszewski, Putting Jesus in His Place: The Case for the Deity of Christ (Grand Rapids: Kregel Publications, 2007), 138.

[3]Although worship, such as bowing, is not often thought of as a “statement” (although it can be), I place it under Testimony as a non-verbal statement.

[4]Qtd. in Leon Morris, The New International Commentary on the New Testament: The Gospel According to John (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1995), 108.

[5]Bowman and Komoszewski, 138-139.

[6]John 1:18, Novum Testamentum Graece, Barbara and Kurt Aland, eds. (Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 1993), 248.

[7]John 1:18, The New Greek-English Interlinear New Testament, J.D. Douglas, ed. (Wheaton: Tyndale House Publishers, Inc., 1990), 318.
[8]Bowman and Komoszewski, 142.

[9]J. Ed Komoszewski, M. James Sawyer and Daniel B. Wallace, Reinventing Jesus: How Contemporary Skeptics Miss the Real Jesus and Mislead Popular Culture (Grand Rapids: Kregel Publications, 2006), 174.
[10]Bowman and Komoszewski, 201.
[11]William Lane Craig, Reasonable Faith, third ed. (Wheaton: Crossway Books, 2008), 324-325.

[12]N.T. Wright, The Resurrection of the Son of God. (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2003), 736.

[13]Bowman and Komoszewski, 119.

[14]Ibid., 160.
[15]Komoszewski, Sawyer and Wallace, 170.
[16]Peter T. O’Brien, Word Biblical Commentary: Colossians, Philemon (Nashville: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1982), 111.

[17]Bowman and Komoszewski, 84.
[18]Normal L. Geisler and Frank Turek, I Don’t Have Enough Faith to Be an Atheist (Wheaton: Crossway Books, 2004), 348.

[19]Bowman and Komoszewski, 260, italics mine.

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